In 1594 the Dutch captain Willem Barents sailed beyond Norway to Svalbard and the Barents Sea. Gerardus Mercator made a practical map of the world, using the projection named after him that conveniently makes navigation rhumb lines straight. However, effective navigation opened the seas to piracy and war. Skilled mariners such as the Englishman Francis Drake and the Spanish conquistadors were rewarded by their home countries for successful and often violent exploitation. Far from discovering empty lands, they subjugated and looted the peoples whose lands they found.[65] Accurate charting of the coasts of Russia only began in the 18th century, and Severnaya Zemlya was not discovered until 1910.[66]
By no means all medieval navigators were from Western Europe. Novgorodians sailed the White Sea since the 13th century or before.[67] The Chinese Ming Dynasty had a fleet of 317 ships with 37,000 men under Zheng He in the early fifteenth century, sailing the Indian and Pacific Oceans.[65]
Origins of oceanography[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Oceanography
Oceanography is a multidisciplinary science and includes examining the properties of sea water, studying the tides and currents, charting coastlines, mapping the seabed and studying marine organisms.[68] Scientific oceanography began with the three voyages of Captain James Cook from 1768 to 1779, exploring, charting and describing the South Pacific with unprecedented precision from 71 degrees South to 71 degrees North.[69] John Harrison's chronometers supported Cook's accurate navigation and charting on two of these voyages, permanently improving the standard attainable for subsequent work.[69] Other expeditions followed in the nineteenth century, from Russia, France, the Netherlands and the United States as well as Britain.[70] On HMS Beagle, which provided Charles Darwin with ideas and materials for his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, the ship's captain, Robert FitzRoy, charted the seas and coasts and published his four-volume report of the ship's three voyages in 1839.[70] Edward Forbes's 1854 book, Distribution of Marine Life, had a wide influence on research on the world's seas, though he argued that no life could exist below around 600 metres (2000 feet). In this, Forbes was proven wrong by the British biologists W. B. Carpenter and C. Wyville Thomson, who in 1868 discovered life in deep water by dredging.[70] Wyville Thompson became chief scientist on the Challenger expedition of 1872–1876, which effectively created the science of oceanography
By no means all medieval navigators were from Western Europe. Novgorodians sailed the White Sea since the 13th century or before.[67] The Chinese Ming Dynasty had a fleet of 317 ships with 37,000 men under Zheng He in the early fifteenth century, sailing the Indian and Pacific Oceans.[65]
Origins of oceanography[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Oceanography
Oceanography is a multidisciplinary science and includes examining the properties of sea water, studying the tides and currents, charting coastlines, mapping the seabed and studying marine organisms.[68] Scientific oceanography began with the three voyages of Captain James Cook from 1768 to 1779, exploring, charting and describing the South Pacific with unprecedented precision from 71 degrees South to 71 degrees North.[69] John Harrison's chronometers supported Cook's accurate navigation and charting on two of these voyages, permanently improving the standard attainable for subsequent work.[69] Other expeditions followed in the nineteenth century, from Russia, France, the Netherlands and the United States as well as Britain.[70] On HMS Beagle, which provided Charles Darwin with ideas and materials for his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, the ship's captain, Robert FitzRoy, charted the seas and coasts and published his four-volume report of the ship's three voyages in 1839.[70] Edward Forbes's 1854 book, Distribution of Marine Life, had a wide influence on research on the world's seas, though he argued that no life could exist below around 600 metres (2000 feet). In this, Forbes was proven wrong by the British biologists W. B. Carpenter and C. Wyville Thomson, who in 1868 discovered life in deep water by dredging.[70] Wyville Thompson became chief scientist on the Challenger expedition of 1872–1876, which effectively created the science of oceanography
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